A correlational cross-sectional design was utilized to achieve the study’s aim.

The study was conducted in Jordan. The sample included Jordanian citizens aged 18 and above who could read and understand Arabic. The sample size was calculated based on the Jordanian population of 10.55 million. The population above 18 years of age was estimated to be 6.92 million [22]. Applying a confidence level of 95% and a confidence interval of 4, the estimated sample size was 600. Sampling strategies, such as networking and snowballing, were utilized to reach the target population. The questionnaire link was distributed on social media to reach the target population.

The researchers’ universities’ institutional review boards (IRB) authorized the study. No permits from institutions or facilities were necessary because the data were collected via an electronic self-administered questionnaire using networking and snowballing. Participants were assured that their replies were completely voluntary and would be kept strictly confidential. The participants' anonymity was maintained throughout the investigation. The consent form was placed on the first page of the survey as part of the link to the study. The participants were notified that clicking on the “next” button meant agreeing to participate in the study. Data were secured in a password-protected laptop and a hard disk. Permission was obtained from the authors of the questionnaires to use in this study.

An online self-administered questionnaire was used to collect data on the COVID-19 pandemic. Google Forms (https://drive.google.com) was used to create the questionnaire. Before participants began the questionnaire, a cover letter and participant information page were offered to them describing research goals and participation. Participants were given a URL to access and complete the questionnaire, and they were informed it would take 15-20 minutes to complete. All questions submitted were automatically kept in the researchers’ private Google drive. Data were collected between October 1^st, 2020, and October 30^th, 2020.

Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 23 [28]. Descriptive statistics, including frequencies and percentages, were calculated to describe gender, academic level, employment status, monthly income, marital status, health insurance, presence of chronic disease, and resilience among the Jordanian population during the pandemic. Mean, standard deviation, and percentiles were calculated to determine the total score for resilience. Multiple linear regression was calculated to examine predictors of resilience. The results were considered statistically significant if α was ≤ 0.05.

The sample included 913 participants. The age ranged from 18 to 75 years (M= 33.69, SD=10.15). The sample consisted of 717 (78.5%) females and 196 (21.5%) males. The largest proportion of the sample reported having a bachelor's degree, i.e., 615 (67.4%). Almost one-third of the population was unemployed, 188 (20.6%) worked in the educational sector, and 169 (18.5%) worked in the health sector. Most of the sample was married 552 (60.5%) and had health insurance 734 (80.4%), as can be seen from Table 1.

Table 2 describes different aspects of resilience and the four scales used in this study. The mean total score of the resilience scale was 24.73 (SD=6.2). The total score ranged from 1 to 40. Up to 75% of the sample scored 29 or less on the resilience scale. The median item score for all items ranged from two to three. Specifically, the items “I try to see the comic side of the problems when I face them,” “failure doesn't get me frustrated easily,” and “under pressure, I can focus and think clearly” scored the lowest.

Two levels of multiple linear regression were conducted. The first multiple linear regression model was significant (F_8,904=2.33, p=0.018), with R²=0.02. In this model, employment status was the only significant predictor of resilience (p=0.001). In the second model, fear of COVID-19, optimism, and pessimism were added to the model. In this model, employment status remained a significant predictor (p=<0.001), and the three variables added to the model were found to be significant predictors of resilience (F_11,901=27.19, P<0.001), with R²=0.25. The change in R² was significant (0.23). All the assumptions of multiple linear regression were tested and met (Table 3).

Although most of the participants were females, well educated, and employed, the results indicated that the Jordanian population showed lower resilience levels (or no resilience at all) by this instrument (Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale). Most studies have used the 10-item Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC-10) used 32 as the cut-off score for the 10-item resilience [23]. This result is vital as our study examined resilience during the pandemic. Many similar studies have also revealed a low resilience level. In a study that included 374 adults and aimed to identify predictors of resilience toward the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, the participants reported a mean score of 30.97 (SD = 5.46) on the 10-item scale [29]. In a Chinese study that included 3088 social media participants and examined gender differences in depression and anxiety and explored associated factors during the COVID-19 pandemic, the mean score of CD-RISC-10 was found to be 28.58 (SD ± 8.08) [30]. In another study conducted during the second and third phases of COVID-19 in Mexico including 666 participants, the mean score of CD-RISC-10 was 29.26 (SD±6.95) [31]. However, despite the seriousness of the pandemic, Chen and Bonanno (2020) suggested most individuals to likely be resilient, and it was reported to be a result of multiple factors, including exposure severity, individual differences, family context, and community characteristics [32]. However, compared to other studies, resilience levels among the Jordanian population were found to be lower. The results of the current study are alarming since COVID-19 is a global pandemic that will not end soon, and this may mean that further decreased levels of resilience may prevail among this population.

Three items were very significant in reflecting the low resilience among the Jordanian population, including the item “I try to see the comic side of the problems when I face them,” “failure doesn't get me frustrated easily,” and “under pressure, I can focus and think clearly.” These results may be due to the fact that threats can be associated with increased levels of concern, especially in females since they constituted the majority among this study’s participants [33]; the general population may have a larger danger assessment of the epidemic, compromising their personal resilience and mental well-being, especially when they lack knowledge regarding the crisis [32]. Previous possible causes may lead to negative psychological consequences of the pandemic that can have a significant impact on mental well-being and the means to deal with these impacts, as mentioned in this study, including the impact on the participants' ability to focus and have clear thinking, frustration, and lower ability to be optimistic.

Employment status successfully indicated greater levels of resilience. Employment status remained a significant predictor of resilience after considering fear of COVID-19, optimism, and pessimism. This finding was expected as the pandemic caused most economic hardships [34]. Similar to this study's results, a descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out in Spain. It included 1176 people between the ages of 18 and 67 to describe resilience levels in a Spanish community during the COVID-19 pandemic and to examine known correlations between high resilience and socio-demographic, occupational, and academic variables. The study found employed participants to be more likely to have higher resilience than non-employed participants.

Varied work statuses result in varied income shocks for families, which have varying effects on their capacity to pay for basic living needs. Financial resilience is defined as a family's capacity to cover fundamental expenditure demands in the face of a financial emergency [35]. Following the onset of the pandemic, the world and Jordan's economy as well shrunk quickly and significantly, making it difficult for many companies to continue without job losses. Many companies have either been permanently closed, laid off, or have furloughed their employees [35], causing many households to experience a sudden and unexpected loss of all or a portion of their work income, severely reducing their financial resilience. The study also found individuals with higher education to more likely to have high resilience and females to have lower resilience than males [36]. The current study detected no relationship between participants' gender or educational level relating to resilience.

Fear is one of the psychological aspects of the COVID-19 pandemic that has significantly impacted people's mental health worldwide [37]. In the current study, fear of COVID-19 was a significant negative predictor of resilience. Our findings were found to be in the same line with several studies; a Chinese study including 476 Chinese outbound students (i.e., from different universities worldwide) [38], a Turkish study including 370 healthcare professionals [39], and a Romanian study [40] have found the fear of COVID-19 to be negatively associated with resilience. Another study that included 929 adults in Turkey found COVID-19 fear to negatively and significantly predict resilience [41]. However, another study that included 517 European college students aimed to examine the prevalence, risk, and protective factors associated with the fear of COVID-19; in this study, no significant correlation was found between the fear of COVID-19 and resilience [42]. In the current study, optimism was a positive predictor of resilience. A study that included 100 university students from different states of India examined the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the relationship between optimism and resilience. The study found increasing positive and optimistic thoughts to increase resilience [43]. In addition, optimism and resilience were positively related in a sample of individuals in Spain [44]. This may be explained in that optimism can increase the individual's self-efficacy to deal with specific situations; thus, it may enhance resilience levels [45]. The relationship between resilience, optimism, pessimism, and the fear of COVID-19 needs further examination as previous studies have suggested different pathways. For example, Vos, Habibović [46] suggested positive personality traits, including optimism and resilience, to be protective factors against fear of COVID-19. In addition, Satici et al. [13] explained the relationship differently; they suggested that fear of COVID-19 mediated the relationship between resilience, hope, and happiness.

This study has some limitations. First, all the tools utilized were self-assessment questionnaires administered via online surveys. Second, because the study utilized a cross-sectional design, no causal correlations between variables can be made. Future studies should use a longitudinal design to better understand the long-term effects on resilience.