Student Motivation for Volunteering: Demographic Factors, Gender Differences, and Inclusion in Study Program Curricula

1.1. Background

The majority of health education institutions seek to produce high-quality health personnel for the clinical care environment to ensure that their graduates are marketable and employable upon graduation [10-12]. The curriculum of the Bachelor of Science in Nursing provides students with theoretical and practical skills that enable them to face the labour market, which is why this curriculum is carefully structured and activated, but extracurricular activities, such as volunteering are carried out only at the will of the students [13]. The existing literature on the factors that motivate nurses' involvement in humanitarian work is limited, with the exception of cases involving disasters, but the motivation in this context is derived from personal beliefs and values, ideals, altruism, and professional identity [6]. These values are acquired during the process of growth and development, shaped by cultural, educational, and environmental influences [14].

The growing interest of researchers in international volunteering within healthcare projects is noteworthy, especially given the increasing participation rates. Of particular interest is the involvement of immigrant nurses in voluntary humanitarian work, which may be linked to potential employment opportunities [6]. Two studies conducted among nursing and midwifery students revealed that many had chosen these programs primarily to obtain valid diplomas that facilitate employment abroad [15, 16]. Volunteering can serve as a tool for personal development and can create pathways to employment [17]. Additionally, volunteering enhances students’ employability by providing opportunities to gain valuable experience that may lead to future job prospects [1, 7]. The objective of this paper is to elucidate the phenomenon of volunteerism among students enrolled in bachelor’s degree programs in nursing, midwifery, physiotherapy, and a professional master’s degree in health psychology, with particular emphasis on motivational factors and the role volunteerism should play in their academic curricula.

2.1. Participants and Data Collection

The sample size of 507 participants was determined based on the total population of students enrolled in relevant health-related programs at the Faculty of Natural Sciences during the 2023–2024 academic year. To achieve a high response rate, the questionnaire was distributed to the entire student population via institutional email. Consequently, the sample reflects a census approach rather than a probabilistic sampling method. Given the exploratory nature of the study and the lack of prior large-scale data on student volunteering in Albania, including as many respondents as possible was considered the most appropriate strategy to ensure broad representation and reliable descriptive insights. However, since participants were recruited from a single institution, the generalizability of the findings to other contexts may be limited.

Although no a priori power analysis was conducted to determine the minimum required sample size for statistical significance, the final sample of 507 respondents was deemed sufficient for robust statistical analyses. This sample size allowed the use of chi-square tests and non-parametric methods (e.g., Mann-Whitney U and Spearman’s rho), which are appropriate for categorical and non-normally distributed data. These methods facilitated meaningful subgroup comparisons (e.g., by gender and age) and the detection of statistically significant associations, supporting the reliability and interpretability of the study’s findings.

2.2. Instruments

The first part of the questionnaire collected demographic data such as gender, age, and year of study. This study employed the “Volunteering of University Students” questionnaire developed by Činčalová & Černá (2021) [1] to explore students’ volunteering experiences and motivations. The questions included: Do you have volunteering experience? If yes, how often do you volunteer? When did you start volunteering? What motivates you to volunteer? If no, why not? And if no, are you considering getting involved in volunteer activities? The use of this questionnaire was approved by Dr. Simona Činčalová via email.

2.3. Interviews with Students

In addition to the online questionnaires, semi-structured interviews were conducted with a subset of students to gain deeper insights into their volunteering experiences and motivations. The authors developed a semi-structured interview guide with predefined questions and prompts to explore key themes related to volunteering. This guide was pilot-tested with a small group of students to ensure clarity. A total of 30 students from the 2023–2024 academic year were selected for interviews, ensuring representation across all programs and years of study. Data saturation was reached, and no repeat interviews were conducted. Interview transcripts were returned to participants for comment or correction.

The 30 interview participants were selected using purposive sampling to ensure maximum variation in study programs, years of study, and prior volunteering experience. This sample size was deemed appropriate, as it allowed for a broad range of perspectives while keeping the qualitative data manageable for thorough analysis. Half of the interviewees had experience with volunteering, while the other half did not. This approach aimed to capture a comprehensive perspective on volunteering from those who had participated and those who had not.

The interview protocol included questions about the nature of their volunteering activities, the impact of these activities on their personal and professional development, challenges faced during volunteering, and suggestions for improving volunteering opportunities within the university. For students with volunteering experience, additional questions focused on specific motivations for volunteering, the activities they were involved in, and how their experiences influenced their academic and career choices. For those without volunteering experience, questions explored the reasons for not engaging in volunteer activities, their perceptions of volunteering, and what might encourage them to start volunteering in the future. The interviews were conducted face-to-face by one of the authors of this study, a female PhD full-time psychology lecturer at the University of Shkodra 'Luigj Gurakuqi 'with extensive research experience. Each interview lasted approximately 30 minutes. Through classroom meetings, the researcher explained the study`s purpose and established a prior relationship with participants. She informed participants that all the researchers were full-time lecturers with an academic interest in student volunteering. The interviewer disclosed the research team`s role and motivation for conducting the study, aiming to explore student engagement in volunteering without influencing responses. The interviewer had prior experience in qualitative research and adhered to ethical guidelines to minimize personal bias. The interviews were conducted in classroom settings, with only the participant and the researcher present. With participants` consent, the interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim for analysis. Field notes were made during the interviews to complement the audio recording and capture non-verbal cues or contextual details. No participants refused to take part in the interviews.

2.4. Data Analysis

The study employed a range of statistical analyses to examine student volunteering patterns. Quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS version 25. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize demographic characteristics and volunteering experience. Chi-square tests assessed associations between categorical variables, such as gender and volunteering experience, age, and the timing of volunteering initiation. Cramér’s V was calculated to determine the strength of associations, while the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test evaluated the normality of volunteering frequency data. A Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare volunteering frequency between genders, and Spearman’s rho correlation assessed the relationship between age and volunteering frequency. Additionally, qualitative data from student interviews were thematically analyzed to gain deeper insights into motivations and barriers to volunteering. One researcher coded the data to ensure consistency in interpretation. A preliminary coding tree, based on the interview questions, was developed and themes were refined iteratively during analysis. Coding and theme development were conducted manually, without qualitative data analysis software. Participants were not asked to provide feedback on the findings after analysis (no participant checking was performed).

2.5. Ethical Considerations

Ethical approval for this research was granted by the Department of Preclinical Subjects at “Luigj Gurakuqi” University of Shkodra, with document reference number 101/2. The approval was signed on 5th December 2023 in Shkodra, Albania. The study adhered to ethical guidelines and principles for research involving human participants. Students were informed about the study’s purpose during face-to-face meetings held in classrooms, grouped by year and study program. These sessions provided detailed explanations of the study’s objectives, the voluntary nature of participation, and the right to withdraw at any time without penalty. It was clarified that completing the questionnaire implied informed consent.

To protect confidentiality and anonymity, no identifying information was collected. Data were anonymized during collection, and all responses were stored securely in an electronic format accessible only to the research team. Participants were assured that their information would be used solely for research purposes and that individual responses would not be disclosed. Only aggregated data will be published, ensuring individual participants cannot be identified.

3.1. Demographic Characteristics

The sample consisted of 507 students, with 86.6% female (n = 439) and 13.4% male (n = 68). The largest age group was 20-year-olds, comprising 26.8% of the sample, while the smallest group was 22-year-olds, representing 6.5%. The distribution across study years showed a relatively balanced representation in the first three years, with fourth-year students, primarily master’s students, making up a smaller proportion (13.0%) (Table 1).

3.2. Volunteering Experience

3.3. Frequency of Volunteering

The results indicated that 44.2% of students did not engage in volunteering. The majority of volunteers participated infrequently, with only 15.7% volunteering every week, highlighting limited overall involvement in volunteer activities.

Among volunteers, a significant proportion participated weekly, with other participants spread across less frequent intervals.

The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test indicated a statistically significant deviation from normality in the distribution of volunteering frequency (D = 0.178, df = 281, p < .001), suggesting that the data were not normally distributed.

Most students volunteered weekly; however, female student participation was more consistent across all volunteer frequencies. Male students showed a slight preference for monthly and weekly volunteering. A Mann-Whitney U test revealed that although males had a higher mean rank (156.02) than females (138.06), the difference in volunteering frequency was not statistically significant (U = 4714.000, Z = -1.417, p = .156). These results indicate that no significant difference was found in the frequency of volunteering between male and female students in this sample (students who have volunteering experience).

The analysis of the frequency of volunteering across different age groups revealed notable variations. Among 18-year-olds, the most common frequency was once a month (32.4%), whereas 24.3% volunteered weekly. For 19-year-olds, 30.9% volunteered once a year, and 27.3% volunteered weekly. In the 20-year-old group, 31.0% volunteered monthly, and 28.2% volunteered biannually. Among 21-year-olds, weekly volunteering was most common (32.8%). For 22-year-olds, 44.4% volunteered weekly. In the over 22 group, 41.7% volunteered weekly. These findings indicate that younger age groups (18-21) exhibited more varied volunteering frequencies, while older individuals (22 and above) tended to volunteer more frequently every week.

A Spearman’s rho correlation revealed a very weak and statistically non-significant relationship between age and volunteering frequency (ρ = 0.097, p = .105), indicating that age does not significantly influence how often students volunteer (Table 2).

3.4. Start of Volunteering

The majority of students (57.7%) began volunteering before entering university. More male students (66%) started volunteering before university compared to females (56%). Conversely, female students were more likely to begin volunteering during university (44% vs. 34%), highlighting gender differences in the timing of volunteering initiation. A chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine the relationship between gender and the timing of volunteering initiation, which showed no statistically significant association (χ²(1, N = 507) = 1.595, p = .207) (Table 3).

3.5. Motivations for Volunteering among Active Volunteers

The motivations for volunteering reported by students were consistent across both quantitative and qualitative findings. Quantitative results showed that the most common motivations were gaining new experiences and skills (49.3%) and feeling useful (42.3%). These were echoed in the interviews, where students also emphasized personal development (40%) and practical experience (30%) as key drivers. Additional qualitative insights included community contribution (20%) and professional networking (10%), supporting the statistical trends. Together, these data highlight that students view volunteering as beneficial for personal growth, skill-building, and professional advancement.

Male students were more motivated by social connections and career aspirations, whereas female students prioritized personal development and skill acquisition. Both genders showed similar influence from religious beliefs and skill utilization (Table 4).

Comparing motivations across age groups revealed distinct trends. Younger students, particularly those aged 18 and 19, often cite personal fulfillment and gaining new experiences as key reasons for volunteering. For example, 33.9% of 19-year-olds and 45.8% of 20-year-olds were motivated by feeling useful. In contrast, older students, especially those aged 21 and above, showed a stronger focus on applying their skills and pursuing careers in their fields. Notably, 57.8% of 21-year-olds and 37.5% of 22-year-olds emphasized gaining new experiences, while 44.4% of 22-year-olds and 13.5% of those over 22 expressed a desire to work in their area of study. Overall, younger students tend to be motivated by personal growth and social factors, whereas older students prioritize practical application and career goals.

3.6. Barriers to Volunteering Experience

Analysis of both the survey and interviews identified similar barriers to volunteering. Over half of non-volunteers (51.6%) reported not knowing how to get involved, while 30% of interviewed students cited a lack of information. “I don`t know who organizes volunteering activities or where to sign up” (P5). “I`ve heard about volunteering, but I have no idea where to find these opportunities (P10). “No one ever explained how we can get involved in volunteering activities (P9). Time constraints were another frequently cited issue, with 50% of interviewees and many survey respondents highlighting academic workload as a key obstacle. As one participant stated, “I have a heavy academic load and no time left for volunteering” (P6). Another added, “Between lectures, assignments, and exams, it`s impossible to think about anything else (P14). One student explained, “Even when I want to volunteer, my schedule is already packed with other duties. (P15). Another student emphasized, “I can`t fit volunteering events into my routine (P16). Less commonly reported barriers included perceived irrelevance to career goals and lack of confidence. These overlapping findings reinforce that both informational and structural factors hinder student participation in volunteering activities.

While both genders face barriers to volunteering, females are primarily hindered by a lack of information (54%), whereas males are more affected by time constraints (33.3%), highlighting gender-related obstacles to participation (Table 5).

3.7. Future Volunteer Interest among Non-volunteers

Among the 223 students without volunteering experience, 38.4% (n = 78) were open to participating if invited, and 36.9% (n = 75) would have considered volunteering if they had more free time. Additionally, 14.8% (n = 30) said they would have volunteered only if someone close to them was involved, while 7.4% (n = 15) cited other reasons. A small minority, 2.5% (n = 5), were not interested in volunteering. These findings indicated significant potential to increase volunteer participation, with 75.3% expressing willingness if approached directly or given more free time, underscoring the importance of targeted outreach and support for time management.

3.8. Recommendation for Volunteering

A striking 99.2% (n=503) of students would recommend volunteering to others, with only 0.8% (n=4) not recommending it. This overwhelming support for volunteering highlights its perceived value among the student body.

From the qualitative analysis, both groups, those with and without volunteering experience, acknowledged the potential benefits of volunteering. Students highlighted the importance of integrating volunteering into the curriculum to encourage greater participation. They believed that structured volunteering opportunities organized by the university could mitigate some of the barriers they faced. Both groups, those with and without volunteering experience, acknowledged the potential benefits of volunteering. A substantial majority (80%) of students noted a positive impact on their personal development, while 70% reported benefits to their professional development. Furthermore, 90% of all students believed that integrating volunteering more explicitly into the curriculum would be beneficial.

4.1. Volunteer Experience

Approximately 56% of the study's participants reported prior engagement in volunteer work, which, while slightly above half of the total sample, is a commendable figure, particularly within the context of students enrolled in medical technical sciences programs. This relatively low level of student participation in voluntary activities is attributable to the nascent stage of democracy in all post-socialist countries [18]. Notably, among volunteers dedicated to healthcare, contributing to this cause, which does not benefit the volunteers themselves, is regarded as an altruistic value [5]. Consequently, the results of the present study align with those of a study conducted by Kraja et al. (2024) [19] on altruistic behavior in these programs, where such behaviors were found to be above average. Furthermore, increased volunteerism is likely related to altruism and professional identity [6, 9], as nursing students see volunteerism as an opportunity to enhance values, such as altruism [20].

4.2. Participation in Voluntary Activities according to Gender Differences

In relation to the gender of students and their involvement in voluntary activities, it has been demonstrated that males are more engaged in these activities, comprising 69.1% of the sample (though this is a relatively small sample size). However, the fact that 86.6% of the study's participants are female may affect the accuracy of this result. In contrast to the study by Cívico-Ariza et al., 2020 [4], conducted in Spain, which found no differences between females and males in voluntary activity involvement, our study highlights the male gender by suggesting that males in our culture have more freedom than females and are able to make their own decisions regarding engagement in such activities. This assertion is further corroborated by a study conducted in the United Arab Emirates by Alsuwaidi et al., 2022 [21], which, despite finding no gender disparities in voluntary engagement, questions its own findings due to the notably high percentage of female participants, potentially obscuring any gender differences. Conversely, a study undertaken in Hungary by Pusztai et al., 2021 [18] revealed that female students exhibited higher levels of persistence in engaging in voluntary activities.

Wilson (2000) [8] underscored the absence of gender disparities in voluntary participation, citing studies indicating that women in North America are more inclined to volunteer, while in Europe, no such differences were observed. This observation aligns closely with Wilson’s conclusions, suggesting that the results of the present study are consistent with his findings. Additionally, the involvement of male nursing students in volunteer activities could provide a valuable opportunity for their professional development, as highlighted in the study by Dolu et al., 2023 [22].

4.3. Participation in Voluntary Activities by Age

In terms of age demographics, the findings of the present study demonstrate congruence with those of the study conducted by Alsuwaidi et al., 2022 [21], which was undertaken among pre-clinical medical students. In that study, first-year students expressed reluctance to volunteer, citing concerns that this might hinder the attainment of their academic goals [21]. In addition, Al Gharash et al., 2021 [23] found that nursing students associated their volunteer work during pandemics with their knowledge, likely because knowledge increases with age and they feel more willing to volunteer. People of different ages have different attitudes towards volunteering, with volunteering increasing in middle age [8]. The present study also demonstrated an association between age and volunteering, although the strength of this relationship was found to be negligible due to the homogeneity of the participant age group.

With regard to the frequency of volunteering among participating students, the results indicated that 44.2% of students did not engage in volunteering, and the majority of volunteers participated infrequently, with only 15.7% volunteering weekly, highlighting the limited overall involvement in volunteer activities. Among volunteers, a significant proportion participated weekly, while others volunteered less frequently. Consequently, the distribution of responses to the question “How often do you volunteer?” did not appear to follow a normal distribution. There was no statistically significant difference in the frequency of volunteering between male and female students, and there was a very weak positive association between age and volunteering frequency, suggesting that age does not significantly affect volunteering frequency in this sample. Moreover, evidence on the frequency or type of volunteering among nursing students is scarce [2].

4.4. Beginning of Volunteering

The majority of students (57.7%) had participated in volunteering activities prior to entering university, with 66% of males and 56% of females engaging in such activities. A study conducted at a UK university by Dyson et al., 2017 [2] found that 42% of participating nursing students had volunteered before commencing their university education, while only 12% were active during their university studies. Alsuwaidi et al., 2022 [21] emphasized the necessity for further exploration to better determine whether students had volunteering experience before entering university.

4.5. Motivations for Volunteering among Active Volunteers

The motivations for volunteering are varied and multifaceted [24]. A study by Geng et al., 2022, among Chinese students, revealed that 62.53% of participants engaged in volunteering for both personal gain and the public interest. Participation in university volunteering offers a valuable opportunity for the development of personal, social, and professional skills [12].

In the present study, which surveyed 284 active volunteers, the predominant motivating factors for participating in volunteer activities were:

4.6. Barriers to Volunteer Experience

The study revealed that 223 students lacked volunteering experience, with the predominant obstacle being a lack of awareness regarding involvement opportunities, affecting 51.6% (n=115) of the sample. Factors such as remuneration, negative perceptions, and lack of interest were found to be less significant barriers. Among healthcare professionals, the most significant barriers to volunteering, in addition to time constraints, include poor information about opportunities to participate in volunteering activities [25].

A qualitative analysis of students lacking volunteering experience revealed the following common barriers:

4.7. Future Volunteer Interest among Non-volunteers

Among the 223 students lacking volunteer experience, 38.4% (n = 78) expressed willingness to participate if prompted, while 36.9% (n = 75) indicated they would consider involvement if they had more available time. The study by Cívico-Ariza et al., 2020 [4] demonstrates that, among students who do not volunteer, the percentage of those expressing a desire to participate is four times higher than those who do not wish to participate. The present study once again highlights the lack of information regarding voluntary activities, as well as the time demands for lesson preparation or simultaneous employment during school.

4.8. Recommendation for Volunteering

The present study demonstrated that an overwhelming majority of students, constituting 99.2% of the sample (n=503), expressed a positive inclination to recommend volunteering to others, with a mere 0.8% (n=4) expressing a negative stance. This finding bears a striking resemblance to the findings of the study conducted by Berduc et al., 2023 [12], which revealed that 95.4% of nursing students would advocate for volunteering. A similar finding was reported by Geng et al., 2022 [28], who found that only 3.7% of the students had no intention of volunteering. This overwhelming support for volunteering highlights its perceived value by the student body. However, although young people appreciate the importance and need for volunteering, most of them do not actively participate [4].

In this study, 90% of students expressed the opinion that integrating volunteering more explicitly into the curriculum would be beneficial. Students believed that volunteering allows them to make connections between theory and practice [29]. Students in the study by Coombs et al., 2024 [29] also highly recommended the further use of volunteering within the nursing curriculum.

Coombs et al., 2024 [29] also found that volunteering enables students to develop clinical and educational skills, build confidence in their ability to join the nursing profession, and strengthen both professional and personal values. Volunteering, when structured as part of the curriculum, contributes to the achievement of competencies and the acquisition of qualities essential to nursing [2].

Seah et al., 2021 [20] posit that healthcare educational institutions should adopt strategies to promote and encourage volunteerism among students. In their study of Chinese students, Geng et al., 2022 [28] proposed a range of strategies for policymakers to incentivise volunteerism within the student population. Over the past two decades, high schools and colleges in China have begun to incorporate volunteerism into their curricula [28].